Algae & Bryophytes: General Properties, Paraphyly, Photosynthetic Pigments, Stored Food and Phylogenetic Classification

Algae and bryophytes are important topics in botany, microbiology, biotechnology and evolutionary biology. Algae include a very diverse collection of primarily photosynthetic organisms, while bryophytes are small non-vascular land plants that include mosses, liverworts and hornworts.

Although algae are often discussed together as a single group in traditional textbooks, modern biology shows that the term algae is not equivalent to one natural evolutionary lineage. Different algal groups are distributed across different branches of the eukaryotic tree of life. This is why the concept of paraphyly is particularly important when studying algae.

Algae also differ considerably in their photosynthetic pigments, stored food materials, cell-wall composition, body organization and evolutionary history. These differences are frequently used in classical algal classification.

Bryophytes, on the other hand, represent early-diverging land plants and have several distinctive characteristics, including a dominant gametophyte generation, absence of true vascular tissue and dependence of the sperm on water for reaching the egg.

These notes are designed in simple language for CSIR-NET, GATE Biotechnology, DBT-BET, ICAR, MSc entrance and other Life Science examinations.

1. General Properties of Algae

The word algae is traditionally used for a broad range of mostly photosynthetic organisms that commonly live in aquatic or moist environments.

They range from very small microscopic organisms to large multicellular forms such as kelps. Therefore, algae cannot be described as one simple body type.

1.1 Mostly photosynthetic

Most algae contain photosynthetic pigments and manufacture organic compounds using light energy.

However, some algal lineages contain organisms with unusual nutritional strategies, including mixotrophy or heterotrophy. Therefore, the statement "all algae are strictly photosynthetic" is an oversimplification.

1.2 Eukaryotic nature

Most organisms traditionally called algae in modern biological discussions are eukaryotic. Their cells contain a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles.

However, cyanobacteria were historically called "blue-green algae". They are actually prokaryotic bacteria and are not true algae.

Very important: Blue-green algae = Cyanobacteria = Bacteria, not true eukaryotic algae.

1.3 Body is usually a thallus

The body of an alga is generally called a thallus. It does not show the complex differentiation into true roots, stems and leaves seen in vascular plants.

1.4 Wide range of body forms

Algae may be:

Unicellular
Colonial
Filamentous
Sheet-like
Large multicellular forms

1.5 Reproduction

Algae can reproduce by:

Vegetative reproduction
Asexual reproduction
Sexual reproduction

Depending on the group, reproduction may involve fragmentation, spores, gamete fusion and complex alternation of generations.

1.6 Cell wall

The composition of algal cell walls varies considerably between groups.

For example, green algae commonly have cellulose-rich walls, while brown algae contain cellulose together with other polysaccharides such as alginates and fucoidans. Diatoms possess silica-rich cell walls called frustules.

1.7 Ecological importance

Algae are major primary producers in aquatic ecosystems. Phytoplankton contribute significantly to global carbon fixation and support aquatic food webs.

Some algae also contribute to oxygen production, nutrient cycling and habitat formation.

1.8 Economic importance

Algae are important sources of:

Agar
Alginate
Carrageenan
Bioactive compounds
Pigments
Food ingredients
Biofertilizers
Biofuels and biomass

Property	Algae
Body	Usually a thallus
Nutrition	Mostly photosynthetic; some have mixed nutritional strategies
Habitat	Mainly aquatic or moist environments
Organization	Unicellular to multicellular
Reproduction	Vegetative, asexual and sexual
Pigments	Vary greatly among algal groups
Importance	Primary production, food, industrial products, biotechnology

2. Algal Body Organization

The simplest algae may consist of a single cell, while some marine algae develop very large multicellular bodies.

Unicellular algae

These algae consist of a single cell capable of carrying out photosynthesis and other life processes.

Examples include Chlamydomonas and many microscopic algal lineages.

Colonial algae

Cells may remain associated in colonies while retaining considerable individual organization.

Volvox is a classic textbook example of a colonial green alga.

Filamentous algae

Cells may remain attached after division and form long filaments.

Spirogyra is a common example used in introductory botany.

Large multicellular algae

Some seaweeds can develop large, complex thalli. Brown algae such as kelps are among the largest algae.

3. Habitat and Nutrition of Algae

Many algae live in freshwater, marine and moist terrestrial habitats.

Freshwater algae may occur in ponds, lakes and streams, whereas marine algae occur from intertidal regions to deeper aquatic environments depending on the group.

Autotrophic nutrition

Most familiar algae are photoautotrophs. They use light energy to synthesize organic compounds from carbon dioxide and water.

CO₂ + H₂O + Light Energy → Organic compounds + O₂

The actual biochemical pathway is more complex, but this equation represents the basic concept of oxygenic photosynthesis.

Mixotrophy

Some algae can combine photosynthetic and heterotrophic modes of nutrition depending on environmental conditions.

This is particularly important in understanding the ecological diversity of microbial eukaryotes.

4. Paraphyly in Algae

Paraphyly is one of the most important concepts for understanding why "algae" is not a single natural taxonomic group.

A group is called paraphyletic when it contains a common ancestor but does not include all descendants of that ancestor.

Traditional "algae" is often treated as a broad collection of photosynthetic organisms that do not form one exclusive evolutionary lineage. Therefore, algae as traditionally defined are commonly described as polyphyletic or paraphyletic depending on the particular definition and taxa included.

Do not confuse:

Monophyletic → ancestor + all descendants
Paraphyletic → ancestor + some, but not all, descendants
Polyphyletic → members come from different evolutionary lineages and the most recent common ancestor is not included as the defining group

Why is this important for algae?

Traditional classification often grouped organisms based on visible characteristics such as:

Photosynthetic ability
Body organization
Pigments
Stored food
Habitat

Modern phylogenetic studies have shown that similar photosynthetic characteristics can occur in organisms that are not closely related because of evolutionary history and, in some cases, endosymbiotic events.

Therefore, modern classification tries to arrange algal lineages according to their evolutionary relationships rather than simply grouping all photosynthetic organisms together.

5. Photosynthetic Pigments

Photosynthetic pigments are molecules that absorb light energy and help drive photosynthesis.

The major pigments found among algal groups include:

Chlorophyll a
Chlorophyll b
Chlorophyll c
Chlorophyll d in certain lineages
Carotenoids
Phycobiliproteins
Fucoxanthin

The combination of pigments is useful for understanding the biology and traditional classification of different algal groups.

6. Chlorophylls

Chlorophyll a

Chlorophyll a is the central photosynthetic pigment in oxygenic photosynthesis and occurs across the major oxygenic photosynthetic lineages, including algae and land plants.

It participates directly in the photochemical reaction centers.

Chlorophyll b

Chlorophyll b is an important accessory pigment found in green plants and several green algal lineages.

It is associated with the green lineage.

Chlorophyll c

Chlorophyll c occurs in several algal groups, particularly groups such as brown algae and diatoms.

Chlorophyll d

Chlorophyll d is characteristic of certain photosynthetic organisms and can serve as an important adaptation for absorbing longer-wavelength light in specialized environments.

Exam focus: Chlorophyll a is the primary photosynthetic pigment in oxygenic photosynthesis; other chlorophylls commonly act as accessory pigments in particular lineages.

7. Accessory Pigments

7.1 Carotenoids

Carotenoids absorb light in regions of the spectrum where chlorophyll absorption is less efficient. They also have important photoprotective roles.

7.2 Fucoxanthin

Fucoxanthin is a characteristic carotenoid found in brown algae and diatoms and contributes to their characteristic brown or golden-brown appearance.

7.3 Phycobiliproteins

Phycobiliproteins are water-soluble pigments associated particularly with cyanobacteria and red algae.

Important phycobiliproteins include:

Phycoerythrin
Phycocyanin
Allophycocyanin

Red algae are especially rich in phycoerythrin, which contributes to their red coloration.

Pigment	Important association	General significance
Chlorophyll a	Oxygenic photosynthetic organisms	Core photosynthetic pigment
Chlorophyll b	Green lineage	Accessory pigment
Chlorophyll c	Brown algae, diatoms and related groups	Accessory pigment
Fucoxanthin	Brown algae, diatoms	Characteristic carotenoid
Phycoerythrin	Red algae and cyanobacteria	Phycobiliprotein
Phycocyanin	Cyanobacteria and some other groups	Phycobiliprotein
Carotenoids	Many photosynthetic lineages	Light harvesting and photoprotection

8. Stored Food Types in Algae

Different algal lineages store photosynthetically produced carbon in different forms. This difference has historically been used as an important character in algal classification.

Green algae

Green algae commonly store carbohydrates mainly as starch.

Red algae

Red algae store carbohydrate primarily as floridean starch, which is chemically distinct from the starch organization typical of green plants.

Brown algae

Brown algae commonly store carbohydrates as laminarin and mannitol.

Diatoms

Diatoms commonly store carbohydrates in forms including chrysolaminarin and oils.

Euglenoids

Euglenoids commonly store carbohydrate as paramylon, a beta-1,3-glucan.

Green algae → Starch
Red algae → Floridean starch
Brown algae → Laminarin + Mannitol
Diatoms → Chrysolaminarin + Oils
Euglenoids → Paramylon

9. Algal Groups: Pigment and Stored Food Comparison

Algal group	Major pigments	Common stored food	Important feature
Green algae	Chlorophyll a, b; carotenoids	Starch	Closely related to land plants
Red algae	Chlorophyll a; phycobiliproteins including phycoerythrin	Floridean starch	Many are marine
Brown algae	Chlorophyll a, c; fucoxanthin	Laminarin and mannitol	Large marine seaweeds common
Diatoms	Chlorophyll a, c; fucoxanthin	Chrysolaminarin and oils	Silica-rich frustule
Euglenoids	Chlorophyll a, b	Paramylon	Flexible pellicle in many forms

10. General Properties of Bryophyta

Bryophytes are small non-vascular land plants traditionally grouped into mosses, liverworts and hornworts.

They are often described as the earliest or among the earliest major lineages of land plants, but modern phylogeny has made their exact relationships more nuanced.

10.1 Non-vascular plants

Bryophytes lack the complex vascular tissues xylem and phloem characteristic of vascular plants.

Because of this, most bryophytes remain relatively small and commonly live in moist environments.

10.2 Gametophyte dominant

The most visible and nutritionally independent phase of the bryophyte life cycle is usually the haploid gametophyte.

This is a major difference from vascular plants, where the sporophyte is the dominant generation.

10.3 Alternation of generations

Bryophytes show a life cycle involving alternating gametophyte and sporophyte generations.

10.4 Rhizoids

Bryophytes do not possess true roots. Instead, they commonly have rhizoids that help anchor the plant to the substrate and may assist in water uptake.

10.5 Reproduction requires water

The male gametes of bryophytes are flagellated and generally require a film of water to reach the archegonium.

This is why water availability is important for sexual reproduction in bryophytes.

10.6 Embryo retention

After fertilization, the developing embryo is retained within the female reproductive structure. This is an important feature of land plants.

10.7 Reproductive structures

Traditional bryophyte terminology includes:

Antheridia – male gametangia
Archegonia – female gametangia

Property	Bryophytes
Vascular tissue	Absent
Dominant generation	Gametophyte
Roots	Absent; rhizoids present
Sexual reproduction	Generally requires water for sperm movement
Sporophyte	Usually attached to and nutritionally dependent on gametophyte to some degree
Habitat	Often moist environments, but not exclusively
Examples	Mosses, liverworts, hornworts

11. Major Groups of Bryophytes

11.1 Liverworts

Liverworts belong to the lineage Marchantiophyta.

They may have leafy or thalloid gametophytes. Marchantia is a commonly studied example.

11.2 Mosses

Mosses belong to Bryophyta in the narrower modern taxonomic sense.

The gametophyte commonly develops from a protonemal stage and later forms leafy shoots.

Funaria is a classical example used in botany courses.

11.3 Hornworts

Hornworts belong to Anthocerotophyta.

Their sporophyte is typically elongated and horn-like, which gives the group its common name.

Group	Common name	Example	Important feature
Marchantiophyta	Liverworts	Marchantia	Leafy or thalloid gametophytes
Bryophyta	Mosses	Funaria	Protonema is an important developmental stage
Anthocerotophyta	Hornworts	Anthoceros	Horn-like sporophyte

12. Life Cycle of Bryophytes

The bryophyte life cycle is characterized by a prominent haploid gametophyte.

The general sequence can be represented as:

Gametophyte → Gametes → Fertilization → Zygote → Sporophyte → Meiosis → Spores → Gametophyte

The gametophyte produces gametes by mitosis because it is already haploid.

Fertilization produces a diploid zygote. The zygote develops into the sporophyte, which produces haploid spores through meiosis.

13. Gametophyte and Sporophyte

Understanding the difference between gametophyte and sporophyte is essential for bryophyte questions.

Feature	Gametophyte	Sporophyte
Chromosome number	Haploid (n)	Diploid (2n)
Develops from	Spore	Zygote
Produces	Gametes	Spores
Division producing product	Gametes by mitosis	Spores by meiosis
Dominant phase in bryophytes	Yes	No

Most important bryophyte fact: The gametophyte is the dominant generation, whereas the sporophyte remains attached to the gametophyte.

14. Phylogenetic Classification

Phylogenetic classification organizes organisms according to their evolutionary relationships and common ancestry rather than only according to superficial similarities.

Modern plant classification uses evidence from:

Morphology
Anatomy
Embryology
Fossils
Biochemistry
DNA sequences
Genome data
Phylogenetic analysis

14.1 Green lineage and land plants

Green algae are not a single perfectly defined taxonomic group, but the green lineage includes two major branches commonly discussed as Chlorophyta and Streptophyta.

Land plants, or Embryophytes, arose within the streptophyte lineage. Therefore, some green algal lineages are more closely related to land plants than they are to other organisms traditionally called algae.

14.2 Land plant evolution

A simplified evolutionary sequence can be represented as:

Streptophyte algae → Early land plants → Bryophyte lineages → Vascular plants → Seed plants → Flowering plants

This is a simplified educational representation rather than a complete phylogenetic tree. Modern molecular studies provide a more detailed picture of relationships among these groups.

14.3 Important point about bryophyte phylogeny

Traditional textbooks sometimes present mosses, liverworts and hornworts as a single group called "Bryophyta". In modern phylogenetic classification, these lineages are generally treated as distinct evolutionary groups:

Marchantiophyta – liverworts
Bryophyta – mosses
Anthocerotophyta – hornworts

The exact branching relationships among these early land-plant lineages have been investigated using molecular and genomic evidence, and some aspects of their deep relationships remain an active area of evolutionary research.

15. Evolutionary Relationship of Major Plant Groups

One of the easiest ways to understand plant evolution is to focus on the increasing complexity of the life cycle and body organization.

Group	Vascular tissue	Dominant generation	Seeds	Important feature
Algal lineages	Absent	Varies	Absent	Extremely diverse; not one natural group
Bryophytes	Absent	Gametophyte	Absent	Embryo retained; water generally needed for fertilization
Seedless vascular plants	Present	Sporophyte	Absent	Examples include ferns
Gymnosperms	Present	Sporophyte	Present	Naked seeds
Angiosperms	Present	Sporophyte	Present	Flowers and fruits

16. Algae vs Bryophytes

Feature	Algae	Bryophytes
General body	Usually thalloid	Plant body differentiated into gametophyte structures, but lacks true vascular tissues
Habitat	Mainly aquatic or moist	Mainly terrestrial, especially moist habitats
Vascular tissue	Absent	Absent
Roots	True roots absent	True roots absent; rhizoids present
Photosynthesis	Common and diverse	Yes
Pigments	Highly diverse among lineages	Chlorophyll a and b as part of the green plant lineage
Dominant generation	Varies among groups	Gametophyte
Embryo	Typical algal life cycles do not have the land-plant embryo-retention condition	Embryo retained on gametophyte
Water for fertilization	Varies	Generally required for motile sperm

17. Important Exam Facts

Algae are a diverse collection of photosynthetic lineages, not one simple natural taxonomic group.
Cyanobacteria are prokaryotes and are not true algae.
Most algae have a thalloid body.
Algae may be unicellular, colonial, filamentous or multicellular.
Chlorophyll a is a key photosynthetic pigment in oxygenic photosynthesis.
Chlorophyll b is strongly associated with the green lineage.
Chlorophyll c occurs in several stramenopile and related algal groups.
Fucoxanthin is characteristic of brown algae and diatoms.
Phycoerythrin is particularly important in red algae and cyanobacteria.
Green algae commonly store starch.
Red algae store floridean starch.
Brown algae commonly store laminarin and mannitol.
Diatoms commonly store chrysolaminarin and oils.
Euglenoids commonly store paramylon.
Algal classification based only on pigments and stored food can obscure evolutionary relationships.
Paraphyletic means ancestor + some but not all descendants.
Bryophytes are non-vascular land plants.
Bryophytes lack true roots, stems and leaves with vascular tissues.
Rhizoids help anchor bryophytes.
The gametophyte is dominant in bryophytes.
Bryophyte sporophytes remain attached to the gametophyte.
Water is generally required for movement of bryophyte sperm to the egg.
Liverworts = Marchantiophyta.
Mosses = Bryophyta in the narrower modern sense.
Hornworts = Anthocerotophyta.
Marchantia is a liverwort.
Funaria is a moss.
Anthoceros is a hornwort.
Land plants belong within the streptophyte green lineage.
Modern classification increasingly uses molecular phylogenetic and genomic evidence.

18. MCQs

Q1. The body of most algae is called:

A. Root
B. Thallus
C. Rhizome
D. Sporophyte

Answer: B. Thallus

Q2. Blue-green algae are actually:

A. Green algae
B. Cyanobacteria
C. Red algae
D. Brown algae

Answer: B. Cyanobacteria

Q3. Which pigment is central to oxygenic photosynthesis?

A. Chlorophyll a
B. Chlorophyll b only
C. Fucoxanthin
D. Phycoerythrin

Answer: A. Chlorophyll a

Q4. Fucoxanthin is particularly associated with:

A. Brown algae and diatoms
B. Mosses only
C. Green plants only
D. Liverworts only

Answer: A. Brown algae and diatoms

Q5. Red algae commonly contain large amounts of:

A. Phycoerythrin
B. Chlorophyll b only
C. Fucoxanthin only
D. Paramylon

Answer: A. Phycoerythrin

Q6. Green algae commonly store food as:

A. Glycogen
B. Starch
C. Paramylon
D. Mannitol only

Answer: B. Starch

Q7. Brown algae commonly store:

A. Laminarin and mannitol
B. Floridean starch only
C. Paramylon only
D. Glycogen only

Answer: A. Laminarin and mannitol

Q8. Euglenoids commonly store carbohydrate as:

A. Paramylon
B. Floridean starch
C. Cellulose
D. Laminarin only

Answer: A. Paramylon

Q9. Paraphyletic group contains:

A. Only unrelated organisms
B. Common ancestor and all descendants
C. Common ancestor but not all descendants
D. No common ancestor

Answer: C. Common ancestor but not all descendants

Q10. Bryophytes are generally:

A. Vascular seed plants
B. Non-vascular land plants
C. Prokaryotes
D. Gymnosperms

Answer: B. Non-vascular land plants

Q11. The dominant generation in bryophytes is:

A. Sporophyte
B. Gametophyte
C. Seed
D. Embryo

Answer: B. Gametophyte

Q12. Bryophytes possess:

A. True roots
B. Rhizoids
C. Xylem and phloem
D. Seeds

Answer: B. Rhizoids

Q13. Which structure is the male gametangium in bryophytes?

A. Archegonium
B. Antheridium
C. Capsule
D. Rhizoid

Answer: B. Antheridium

Q14. The female gametangium in bryophytes is:

A. Antheridium
B. Archegonium
C. Protonema
D. Capsule

Answer: B. Archegonium

Q15. Which bryophyte group includes Marchantia?

A. Bryophyta
B. Marchantiophyta
C. Anthocerotophyta
D. Pteridophyta

Answer: B. Marchantiophyta

Q16. Funaria is an example of:

A. Liverwort
B. Moss
C. Hornwort
D. Fern

Answer: B. Moss

Q17. Hornworts belong to:

A. Marchantiophyta
B. Anthocerotophyta
C. Bryophyta only
D. Angiosperms

Answer: B. Anthocerotophyta

Q18. The bryophyte sporophyte develops from:

A. Spore
B. Zygote
C. Gamete
D. Protonema

Answer: B. Zygote

Q19. Meiosis in the bryophyte life cycle produces:

A. Zygotes
B. Gametes directly
C. Haploid spores
D. Diploid embryos

Answer: C. Haploid spores

Q20. Modern phylogenetic classification primarily attempts to reflect:

A. Habitat alone
B. Colour alone
C. Evolutionary relationships
D. Economic importance only

Answer: C. Evolutionary relationships

19. Frequently Asked Questions

Are algae plants?

The answer depends on the particular algal lineage. The traditional term "algae" covers multiple evolutionary lineages, and many are not classified as plants. Green algae and land plants belong to the broader green lineage, while other organisms traditionally called algae belong to different branches of the eukaryotic tree.

Are blue-green algae true algae?

No. Blue-green algae are cyanobacteria, which are prokaryotic bacteria capable of oxygenic photosynthesis.

What is paraphyly?

A paraphyletic group contains a common ancestor and some, but not all, descendants of that ancestor.

What is the major photosynthetic pigment?

Chlorophyll a is the central pigment associated with oxygenic photosynthesis.

What is stored food in green algae?

Green algae commonly store carbohydrate mainly as starch.

What is stored food in brown algae?

Brown algae commonly store carbohydrates as laminarin and mannitol.

What is paramylon?

Paramylon is a storage beta-1,3-glucan characteristic of many euglenoids.

Are bryophytes vascular plants?

No. Bryophytes are traditionally classified as non-vascular land plants and lack true xylem and phloem.

Which generation is dominant in bryophytes?

The gametophyte is the dominant generation in bryophytes.

Why do bryophytes need water for reproduction?

Their male gametes are flagellated and generally require a film of water to move to the female reproductive structure.

What are the three major bryophyte lineages?

The major groups traditionally included under bryophytes are Marchantiophyta, Bryophyta and Anthocerotophyta, representing liverworts, mosses and hornworts respectively.

20. Last-Minute Revision Table

Topic	Quick Revision
Algal body	Usually thalloid
Algal nutrition	Mostly photosynthetic
Blue-green algae	Cyanobacteria
Chlorophyll a	Central photosynthetic pigment
Chlorophyll b	Green lineage
Chlorophyll c	Several algal groups including brown algae and diatoms
Fucoxanthin	Brown algae and diatoms
Phycoerythrin	Red algae and cyanobacteria
Green algae storage	Starch
Red algae storage	Floridean starch
Brown algae storage	Laminarin + mannitol
Diatom storage	Chrysolaminarin + oils
Euglenoid storage	Paramylon
Paraphyly	Ancestor + some, not all, descendants
Bryophytes	Non-vascular land plants
Dominant phase	Gametophyte
Roots	True roots absent; rhizoids present
Male gametangium	Antheridium
Female gametangium	Archegonium
Liverworts	Marchantiophyta
Mosses	Bryophyta
Hornworts	Anthocerotophyta
Marchantia	Liverwort
Funaria	Moss
Anthoceros	Hornwort
Bryophyte sperm	Generally requires water for movement
Phylogenetic classification	Based on evolutionary relationships

21. Memory Tricks

1. Algal pigments

Green = B, Brown = Fuco, Red = Phyco

Green algae → Chlorophyll b
Brown algae → Fucoxanthin
Red algae → Phycoerythrin

2. Stored food

"Green Starch, Red Floridean, Brown Laminarin"

Green → Starch
Red → Floridean starch
Brown → Laminarin + mannitol

3. Euglenoid

Euglena → Paramylon

4. Bryophyte groups

"L-M-H"

L = Liverwort → Marchantiophyta
M = Moss → Bryophyta
H = Hornwort → Anthocerotophyta

5. Bryophyte generation

"Bryophyte = Gametophyte is Great"

Remember: Gametophyte dominant.

6. Sexual structures

A = Antheridium = Male

A = Archegonium = Female

7. Paraphyly

"Para = Part"

Paraphyletic group contains the ancestor but only part of its descendants.

22. Conclusion

Algae and bryophytes are important for understanding both photosynthetic diversity and the evolution of land plants. Algae are not a single uniform evolutionary group; the traditional term includes organisms from several different lineages. Their diversity can be understood through body organization, pigments, storage products and molecular phylogeny.

Among the most important algal characters are photosynthetic pigments and stored food materials. Green algae commonly store starch, red algae store floridean starch, brown algae store laminarin and mannitol, and euglenoids commonly store paramylon.

The concept of paraphyly is particularly important because traditional classifications based mainly on appearance can group organisms that do not share a recent common evolutionary history. Modern phylogenetic classification therefore uses molecular and genomic evidence to reconstruct evolutionary relationships.

Bryophytes represent important non-vascular land plants. They include liverworts, mosses and hornworts. Their life cycle is characterized by a dominant haploid gametophyte and a dependent sporophyte. Their flagellated sperm generally require water for successful fertilization.

For competitive examinations, remember this core sequence:

Algae → Pigments + Stored Food + Diverse Lineages + Paraphyly

Bryophytes → Non-vascular + Gametophyte Dominant + Rhizoids + Water-dependent Fertilization

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Thursday, 10 September 2026

Algae and Bryophytes: General Properties, Paraphyly, Photosynthetic Pigments, Stored Food and Phylogenetic Classification